Patriarchal (sexist) society oppresses women: Women sexuality is marginalized

Abstract The Oedipus complex is a name coined from the notorious Kind Oedipus, a Greek legend, who kills his father so that he can marry his mother. The term denotes the notions and emotions that the mind keeps in the unconscious condition, through the dynamic repression that concentrates on the desire of a child to sexually possess the parent. This paper describes the Oedipus complex in detail and discusses how the beliefs influence women by discussing how the sexist society oppresses women. A summative paragraph is then provided to offer an overview of the discussions. Introduction The Oedipus complex gets its name from notorious Kind Oedipus, a Greek legend, who terminates the life of his father so that he can marry his mother. This is an act of incestuous ferocity that is predicted that he would commit by an oracle early in his life. Frightened, he tries to use everything at his disposal to run away from his destiny, but he unavoidable fails and consequently tears his eyes out, and then blinds himself the despicable actions he had committed. Freud adopts the Kind Oedipus’ Greek Legend to illustrate the perverse bond that children of opposite sex and their parents take part. Fortifying the early children’s developmental years, positive passage through the period can be determined by whether the risk of castration encourages or enhances the formation of the conscience of a child and hence entrance into the consequent ‘period of latency.’ All these stages of development have varying and inexplicable effects on the psychological develop ment of a person. A critical point of view consists just in perceiving the Oedipus Complex as the focal point or hinge of humanization, as a change or development from the natural life register to a cultural one of group exchange and thus of legislations, organizations and symbols. However, Freud brings about the irony that due to the lack of penis, the risk of castration does not hurt a young girl to the same level as a male child and hence the formation of the conscience is frail (Bloom, 2003). Influence on women There is no doubt that Freud is the most popular individual in the history of psychology. The theories that he created have influenced the field of psychology and are still influential even at present. Despite his several influential and important contributions to the field of psychology, his theories have faced several criticisms. One of the major criticisms is his views on women, or, more accurately, the huge gap in his theories about women (Gregory, 2005, p.68). In Freud’s early theories, he extended his beliefs of male sexuality to the women, regarding women as just men who lack penises. His male view of sexuality is comprehensible, even though problematic, since it marginalizes female sexuality. According to the theory, female sexuality is exactly the same as the male sexuality until they reach the phallic phase of psychological development, as the women do not have penis. However, they experience the envy of penis, which is the possessiveness that young girls feel toward s their male counterparts and the hatred towards their mothers, to whom they lay their blame for lack of penis (Gregory, 2005, p.74). Although he did not suggest the ‘Electra complex,’ it is possible to infer it from his theories that young girls shift their attractions to their fathers from their mothers in trying to obtain a penis. Since they are female, they are not in a position of identifying with their father, and then they come to the realization that gaining a penis is an impossibility, they decide to have children. Freud, just as the early sexologists regarded women as sexually passive, where they only have sex for the purposes of having children. Since they lack a penis, they come to assume that they lost theirs, and then have male children in trying to obtain a penis. In women, penis envy is an issue that Freud thought could never be resolved completely, hence condemning all of them to the underdeveloped conscience, meaning that they will always be inferior t o men morally (Gregory, 2005, p.76). According to Freud, men are able to have conscience that is fully developed. For an individual who has his theories focused on the subject of sex, he appeared satisfied to remain deliberately ignorant of the female sexuality and the way it might differ from that of the males. The views of Freud on female sexuality and women were plainly phallic-focuses, which made his research and exploration into the sexuality of females very limited. It is very interesting to note that despite the fact that he worked with is theories on the sexuality of females remained limited and focused on males. He was also not left out by the general sexism of the period, stating that the sexual life, in men alone is accessible to investigation, while it is veiled in the impermeable darkness, in the women, partly as a result of the cultural stunting and on the traditional reticence and untruthfulness of women’s account (Gregory, 2005, p.79). It appears troublesome t o dismiss the women together with their sexuality in such a manner not only because Freud treated several women, but because his beliefs still exist today, and continue to influence sexologists and psychologists in the same way. Freud creates a paradigm in which the lack of a penis and the discovery of this fact plague a little girl in her youth, who views this absence as a weakness to the opposite sex. Freud, (3) explains that in trying to justify this absence, a little girl clarifies it by having an assumption that at one time she was having an equally large organ on her body, which she lost through castration. She goes further to claim that she will be able to acquire just as big organ as the one possessed by the boys when she grows older. She eventually adopts the mother’s attributes and ends a strong desire and lust for her father, with the hope of having her own child ne day to compensate for lack of a large organ as the one that boys possess (Glen, 2010, p. 66). In add ition, Freud argues that a little girl is spared the cruel awakening, since it is not a social taboo for a girl to have a flirtatious yet less harmful connection with the father. Similarly, being the father’s favorite girl can be a long lasting relationship, as it is not necessarily regarded as improper. Due to the benevolent and kind nature of this experience, she is starved of the reconciliation with the social taboo and as a result renders the woman morally weaker as her conscience will never be as strong as that of a man (Anouchka, 2010, p.123). In cases where mutual idealization and insensible shame have played a significant role in a marriage relationship, if it ends, the couples usually appear to fight each other to find who will win or lose the battle. They usually enlist their children’s loyalty against each other. The one that will succeed in turning the children against the other will always proclaim victory over the former partner. This is a heartbreaking c ase of the narcissistic requirements of that particular parent overriding their concern for the wellbeing of the children; that is the wish to revenge on the former partner forces them to sacrifice the fundamental needs of the children for a good and smooth relationship with both of them. This is a dynamic that usually damage the children, even though it can be particularly harmful when it is added to the dynamic of Oedipus complex; this complex in such situations mostly influences women. For instance, here is a case that may be common to many individuals. It will be described in relation to the mothers who are divorced and their male children. In instances where the infidelity of the father caused the separation, the former wife might always have formal grounds or reasons to be angry, however, that would not be a justification to the type of tragic narcissistic behavior that is sometimes experienced (Glen, 2010, p. 67). `The claim that Oedipus complex as it is perceived classically and applied in the practice of psychoanalysis comes from the situation of males both in the mythic expression and in its clinical extensions. However, it is a critical flow from the female experience’s point of view. When the Oedipus complex is applied to females, male desire and rivalry mediate it, and then clumsily appended to the development of female. The phallocentrism that is most clearly expressed by the declaration by Freud that the young girl is a young man (p118) has left its traces all through the vocabulary of the theories of psychoanalysis of development and no other place as evident as in the discussions about the female Oedipus complex. Expectations and perceptions are shaped by language; that is, it organizes reasoning. When thinking about Oedipus, people think about ‘penis envy’ and ‘castration,’ but not about vagina or pregnancy. When talking about the stage of ‘phallic-Oedipal’ in the young girls, people distract them selves from the critical development need of the young girls to identify with the mother. The female triadic condition does not have its individual name, but rather floats like an incomprehensible ‘something that is not nothing’s’ signifier (Rosman, Paula, Rubel, and Maxine, 2009, p.152). If a father gives a loving affection to the daughter, the little girl will be able to grow up more smarter and successful. She will also be les nervous, less immoral and also less likely to be a user of drugs. From the girl’s early years, they expect their fathers to provide love, reassurance and admiration. The response of a father greatly influences the ability of the daughter to have positive relationships and trust other men. The level of self-esteem of a girl is influenced to a great deal by the relationship with her father. So, what happens when there are no fathersOr even they become too busy to have time for their daughtersBetween the ages of three and eight, the young girl naturally abandons their attachment to their mothers and turn to the father. This is comparable to the Oedipus complex, which is used in the description of the competition between a girl and a mother to have the affection and love of the father (Butler, 2014, p.35-90). It is part of a normal phase in the development of a girl. The changing of family configurations, where there are more relationship or marriage breakups than ever experienced before, has hampered normal development of a girl. About forty to fifty percent of first marriages break up after a short period of stay, which leads to more single parents. Whether the Oedipus complex actually exists or not is a subject to debate among academicians, but what appears to be clear is that the attachment of the girl to her father or mother is determined by the situational or cultural factors. The quality of attachments as such shapes the personality and results of the girl. Characteristically, the girl should have been gi ven a clear directive by the father such as she should not order her father around or that she is supposed to shoe kindness to her mother and even love her (Lacan, 2012, p.97). Without having to force the situation too much, it is apparent that there would have been restoration of the ‘order’ and the young girl could have known that the parents work together in a learning enterprise that includes boundaries and respect. Some men wrongly think that their wives are supposed to treat them just like their daughters, as ‘perfect heroes.’ They please and obey their daughters so that they cannot lose their respect. Early experiences shape the lives of individuals. Denial, abandonment and rejection in the people’s childhood might force them into a long lasting quest for healing their wounds. However, deficiencies in parenting also make a big score. Conclusion Freud’s beliefs in the psychoanalysis are greatly biased towards women as it views women as sexually passive, who just engage in it to have children. His view in Oedipus complex greatly influences the development of females in the way they live, as when it is applied to females, male desire and rivalry mediate it, and then clumsily appended to their development. Even the young girl is not fair to her mother whom she blames for her lack of a penis, thus the hatred. The beliefs are centered on males where it is believed the development of a female to a responsible and respectable person is associated with the father, as that is where they draw their inspiration, and that is why a young girl tends to fight off her mother in order to take her position as the father’s favorite. The changing of family configurations, where there are more divorces than ever experienced before, has hampers normal development of a girl. References Anouchka G, 2010, No More Silly Love Songs. London, p. 123 Bloom H, 2003, Sophocles. New York: Chelsea House. Butler, J. 2014, Undoing Gender. London, England: Routledge: p 35-90. Glen O. G, 2010, Long-Term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy, London. p. 67. Gregory, J, 2005, A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Oxford. Lacan, J. 2012, Ecrits: A Selection, trans. Bruce Fink. New York: Northon: p 97. Rosman, Paula G. Rubel, Maxine W, 2009, The Tapestry of Culture: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology, Ninth Edition, Abraham, AltaMira Press, p. 101. Freud S, 1965, The Interpretation of Dreams Chapter V â€Å"The Material and Sources of Dreams† New York: Avon Books. Ian C, and Allen, A, 2005, A Guide to Greek Drama. London: Blackwell.

Literature review of Women at workequality versus inequality: barriers for advancing Essay

1. Introduction Women in our days choose to get educated and pursue careers. To do this most of them have to learn to deal with dual roles; the role of the employee and the role of mother/wife. The majority of them have managed to move from working at the traditionally female occupations (such as teachers and nurses) to male-dominated areas such as managers and engineers (Atwater and van Fleet 1997; Chater and Gaster 1995; Krambia-Kapardi 2006). Furthermore, gender equality is a fundamental principle for democratic countries; women and men should participate as equals in the social, cultural and economic life. Even though improvements have been made, gender equality is still not achieved as men and women are not represented and are not treated equally in the workplace. Unfortunately, the increasing number of working women did not bring equal career advancement opportunities. Gender issues in the workplace arise from differences in the way men and women are treated. Women are not treated by the organizations the same way as men do, something that holds women back from advancing the managerial ladder. It is a fact that women are underrepresented in top managerial positions compared with women holding lower and mid-level management positions (Mihail 2006). *Corresponding author. Email: michailidis.m@unic.ac.cy ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online q 2012 Taylor & Francis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2012.665071 http://www.tandfonline.com M.P. Michailidis et al. Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 Women face numerous obstacles for their career advancement and often, welleducated women, with many years of experience are not promoted at the same rate as their male co-workers of the same occupational level. Women have to work twice as hard as their male colleagues to achieve recognition (Wirth 2001). According to Eagly and Carli (2007), Hymowitz (2005), Wirth (2001), Rhode (2003), Duehr and Bono (2006), Hymowitz (2005) and Dimakis, Krambia-Kapardi and Savva (2006), some of the controversial issues that women face in the workplace are gender discrimination, glass ceiling, stereotypes, work– life balance, lack of mentoring, conï ¬â€šicting roles and pay inequality. These are considered barriers that prevent women from obtaining work equality and furthermore achieving top managerial positions. 1.1. Gender discrimination According to Wirth (2001), a large number of women enter the workforce at similar levels as their male counterparts; however, their careers progress more slowly than their male colleagues. Quite often they are more qualiï ¬ ed than their male counterparts but have to work harder and perform much better to obtain top positions. The discrimination acts toward women can take various forms; they are often treated unfairly at the recruiting and promotion processes and the remuneration policies. In addition, there is a general perception that women are not committed to work as they have or will have family and children (Hymowitz 2005). Furthermore, since this study took place in Cyprus it is worth mentioning that the Cyprus Government has always been interested in promoting equality among men and women and social and economic actions were implemented. The efforts began at the end of the 1970s, as part of the Strategic Development Plans, and aimed at the creation of legal framework that prevents gender discrimination, support work– family balance and enhance the socioeconomic life of women living and working in Cyprus. In an effort to harmonize with the European Union the Equal Treatment of Men and Women in Employment and Vocational Training Law, No. 205(I)/2002 was implemented by the Cyprus Democracy. 1.2. Stereotypes Stereotypes are based solely on perceptions and ‘gender stereotypes inï ¬â€šuence beliefs, behaviors and self-concepts at both conscious and unconscious levels’ (Rhode 2003, p. 7). Perceptions that women’s place is in the house taking care of her husband and children has been haunting women for many centuries. In recent years, companies are recruiting an increasing numbers of women but unfortunately most of them are not promoted as they should and are left at lower and middle level ranks (Ntermanakis, as cited by Mihail 2006). Schein, Mueller, Lituchy and Liu (1996) reported the existence of a psychological barrier for women’s advancement; the ‘think manager –think male’ perception. According to Nichols (1994), the belief is that managerial positions require masculine characteristics and so women are not cut out for this type of job. A research conducted in Cyprus regarding the perceptions of young people in Cyprus (Intercollege’s Research Center 2007) gives several positive outcomes related to relatively low levels of genders stereotypes. Of the people asked, 73.4% disagreed with the statement that women should stay at home while men should be the sole money providers. Another important point is that 58.9% believe that men and women can be equally good managers, and that women should receive the same rewards with their male counterparts (81.1%). A recent study by Duehr and Bono (2006) reported that ‘stereotypes about women may be changing’. Male The International Journal of Human Resource Management managers seem to be characterizing women as less passive and submissive and more conï ¬ dent, ambitious, analytical and assertive. Male managers have simply learned that they are expected to view men and women similarly at work. Women are also being stereotyped because they become mothers. Hymowitz (2005) mentioned that one of the reasons why women are not taken seriously in the workplace is because at some point in their career they will have children and they will not be as devoted to work as they should and they will not be willing to work those long hours needed. Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 1.3. Glass ceiling The number of women working at managerial positions is growing. Even though the number of women in lower and mid-level management positions is greater than ever, the percentage of women holding top managerial positions is disproportionably low (Atwater and van Fleet 1997). Women seem to be banned from executive positions due to the ‘glass ceiling’ effect, which describes the invisible artiï ¬ cial barriers, created by attitudinal and organizational prejudices, which block women from top executive positions (Wirth 2001). According to Wirth (2001), women, although they are well educated, are pushed into a narrow range of occupations, where there is less responsibility, lower pay and few opportunities for advancement. Some of them manage to climb the corporate ladder and achieve middle level positions but the invisible barriers prevent them from attaining top managerial jobs. Toussiant (2010) described the history of the glass ceiling in America. As it talks about how wom en were constantly facing discrimination from male-dominated society. This is accomplished by discussing how everything from various court cases to the ERA would have an impact upon these views. Krambia-Kapardi (2006) examined the existence of the ‘glass ceiling’ effect in Cyprus by looking at women’s participation in committees and the opportunities for being promoted in executive positions, the research states that although women participate in various committees, the percentage participating is limited and there has been no signiï ¬ cant improvement the past 6 years. To describe the current situation in Cyprus the writer states that ‘there is no glass ceiling in participating committees, but a concrete wall and it takes a lot of effort to break through that wall’. When it comes to the existence of glass ceiling in executive positions, women hold 12% of these positions in the private sector and 37% in the public sector. Researchers tried to identify the barriers that prevent women from advancing to higher managerial positions. Some of the barriers mentioned were lack of self-conï ¬ dence, avoiding risk taking because of fear of failure and setting low goals (Krambia-Kapardi 2006). Another term relevant to the glass ceiling is the ‘maternal wall’, which refers to the barriers that women face when they get pregnant as male co-workers and managers assume that once a woman has a baby she will not be committed to her career (Swiss 1996). 1.4. Balancing work and family Women today have multiple roles and are torn between demanding careers and intensive family lives. These conï ¬â€šicting roles require a great amount of time and energy, and quite often women do not know how to deal with this issue. ‘Work– life balance is a state where an individual manages real or potential conï ¬â€šict between different demands on his or her time and energy in a way that satisï ¬ es his or her needs for well-being and self-fulï ¬ llment’ (Clutterbuck 2003, p. 8). The elements that Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 M.P. Michailidis et al. inï ¬â€šuence this type of conï ¬â€šict, according to Parasuraman and Simmers (2001), is the employee’s gender, type of employment (self-employed or organizational employed), work role characteristics and pressures (such as how much autonomy is available in the workplace, time ï ¬â€šexibility, level of job involvement and time commitment to the work itself) and family role characteristics and pressures (such as parental demands, level of family involvement and time commitment to family). Gladen (2007) discussed how women have more challenges in being able to balance their work and personal life. Where, the majority of women will have: a sense of guilt, scheduling conï ¬â€šicts and adjusting to two different worlds. Moreover, to help working women, companies can implement various family-friendly policies, which can make it much easier for them to combine paid jobs with family work. This can be achieved by offering ï ¬â€šexible working hours (permanent or temporary), workin g from home and the creation of childcare facilities in work. Organizations also need to ensure that employees who seek temporary working accommodations do not pay a permanent price (Rhode 2003). 1.5. Mentoring/role models/networking The lack of mentoring, social networking and role models are making advancement of working women harder. Women very frequently are not given high visibility assignments or challenging tasks. Also, frequently they are excluded from marketing and social events that result in professional opportunities. Furthermore, they are not helped in their career progression, therefore they are far away from leadership positions (Nossel and Westfall, as citied by Rhode 2003). 1.5.1. Mentoring Mentoring programs aim at helping participants become successful in the workplace. A mentor gives advices for the unspoken company’s rules, provides information for company policies and decision making, give recommendations on how to avoid explosive situations, and information about who is aligned to whom. Furthermore, a mentor provides  ´  ´ career and psychosocial support to enhance mentee/protege’s-junior colleague, professional and personal development (Swiss 1996; Apospori et al. 2006). To be more effective, mentoring should be incorporated with training and development and succession planning. Thompson (2010) highlights how mentoring programs can help women to address the various issues of inequality in the workplace. The problem is that the majority of employers do not offer any kind of mentoring programs to female employees. As only 28% of women are reporting that their employers have some kind of mentoring program, out of this number 52% of women felt that their employers lacked transparency and understanding when addressing this issue (Thompson 2010). Furthermore, barriers women come across when searching for mentors are that male mentor’s are reluctance to take on the mentoring role, this might be due to fear that the relationship might be misinterpreted. Also, the scarcity of female mentors makes it more difï ¬ cult for women to have access to a mentor (Apospori et al. 2006). 1.5.2. Role models ‘Role models are often said to be key to the successful development of young aspiring managers’ (Singh, Vinnicombe and James 2006, p. 67). According to Shapiro et al. (as citied by Singh et al. 2006), role models are individuals whose style, action and traits are The International Journal of Human Resource Management imitated by others. It is also believed that role models are important for all female employees regardless level and age, but special attention must be given to newly employed females (Swiss 1996). Unfortunately, the small number of women holding executive position limits the number of role models for young female employees. Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 1.5.3. Networking Networking is viewed by Vinnicombe and Colwill (1995) as citied by Singh et al. (2006) as the ‘banding together’ of individuals who think alike, for satisfying their contact, friendship and support needs. Furthermore, Forret and Dougherty (2004) elaborated on the issue of networking and stated that these are attempts made by people to develop relationships with individuals who have the potential to assist them work- or careerwise. Furthermore, Allison (2007) and Singh et al. (2006) refer to networking in terms of the differences of the approaches men and women use. Men are on a ‘mission’ when attending a business networking event, trying to meet people who will help them for professional advancement, whereas women believe that this approach is ‘pushy’ and prefer attending workshops or conferences where they can share ideas and use networking for social support. 1.6. Pay gap Gender pay inequality is consistently and widely observed. Various social and economic causes contribute to the long-established gender pay gap, and much effort has been made to explain the reasons for the discriminatory wage disparities. The article titled, Its Time for Working Women to Earn Equal Pay (2007), talks about the vast disparities that are occurring as far as pay and compensation are concerned. Where, women will earn signiï ¬ cantly less in comparison with their male counterparts for the same amount of work. According to a study that was conducted by the WAGE Now Project, they found that the vast disparities in pay equality are between $750 thousand and $2 million over the course of lifetime (Its Time for Working Women to Earn Equal Pay 2007). Wallace (2010) discusses the issues that women will face in the workplace from: the glass ceiling to overall issues of discrimination. In most industries, this means that women are earning $.80 cents for every dollar that is made by men. This information is important, because it can be used to corroborate other sources about issues of the glass ceiling and equal pay in the workplace. Wage discrimination as Joshi and Paci (1998) explained means that one group is paid systematically less than others with ‘equal productivity-related characteristics’. The remuneration disparities between the two sexes have been ascribed to the narrow number of women holding top managerial levels of organizations, which means they are rewarded with higher pay rates (Alkadry and Tower 2006). The article that was written by Childress (2010) talks about: how various legislation has been created to deal with the issue of inequality in the workplace (the Glass Ceiling Commission). As they were created as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 and was designed to deal with the issue of discrimination in the workplace. However, the commission was never successful, because there was not any kind of agreement among members about how to effectively tackle this issue. This is important because it highlights the underlying challenges that are constantly being faced when trying to establish some kind of procedures for addressing gender inequality. As a result, the information from this source is useful, because it is showing how various regulatory failures have contributed to situations of inequality existing. M.P. Michailidis et al. The Cyprus government enforced The Equal Remuneration of Men and Women in Employment and Vocational Training Law, No. 177(I)/2002 to ensure the equal remuneration of both sexes for work of equal value. The Equal Remuneration of Men and Women in Employment states that men and women employees receive the same level of ï ¬ nancial or non-ï ¬ nancial rewards, for the same type of work or for work of equal value. Polachek and Xiang (2006) analyzed data from 40 countries, including Cyprus, between the years 1970 and 2002 on how the gender wage gap varies in relation to the fertility rate, the age gap between the husband and wife, and the female educational achievements. The information collected indicated that the fact the women have the main responsibility for the household and the children, as a result female employees have less job experience and training. On the other hand, men are the main money winners of the family and thus working for more years, with no career breaks and thus more experience and opportunities for vocational training. All these lead to gender pay gap. Despite the fact that various efforts are being made by governments to achieve wage equality, gender pay gap still exist since women are paid less than men for comparable positions (Rhode 1997; Sallop and Kirby 2007). Even though women have equivalent skills to men, nevertheless they are not paid with the same pay rate. Researches believe that perhaps the choice of career might be a reason for the gender pay gap. Alkadry and Tower (2006) reported that even though women have started overcoming some of the barriers for advancing to higher positions, wage disparities still persist and as a result women are rewarded with less money in comparison to their male colleagues. 2. 2.1. Methodology Purpose of the study This study aimed at: (1) identifying the factors that working women in Cyprus are faced with which lead to experience discrimination; (2) examining possible barriers that affect women’s advancement; and (3) identifying organizational practices that assist them in achieving work– life balance. 2.2. The questionnaire The data were collected by the distribution of a six-page questionnaire, which was on a voluntary, anonymous and conï ¬ dential basis and targeted four occupational levels: below ï ¬ rst line, ï ¬ rst line, middle and high-level management women, employees of organizations in Cyprus. The questionnaire was prepared by the researchers and was divided into two sections. Section A coved the demographic data of women participating in the research and in Section B the questions referred to women’s personal experiences, opinions or thoughts related to the workplace. 2.2.1. Section A: biographical information In this section, the participants’ had to respond to questions related to: age, marital status, number of children, educational level, work position, employment sector, type of organization, job title and number of years in the current job. 2.2.2. Section B was composed of ï ¬ ve parts, which are described below: Part I had eight ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions, here, the participants had to respond to questions related to experiencing any form of work discrimination, gender discrimination, Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 The International Journal of Human Resource Management discrimination during hiring, promotion or career advancement opportunities, and discrimination related to ï ¬ nancial and non-ï ¬ nancial rewards between men and women. Part II had four questions; here, the respondents were asked whether gender is a factor that can limit promotions, compensations, access to clients and access to training. The replies were based on a Likert-type scale of 1 –3 (I do not know, Not much and Very much). Part III had ï ¬ ve questions asking women’s opinion on several statements regarding the way women and men are treated in their organizations, such as equal treatment among men and women, equal opportunities for advancement, childbearing and career commitment. The participants had the option of choosing one of the following Likerttype scale responses: I strongly agree, I tend to agree, Undecided, I tend to disagree and I strongly disagree. Part IV had a set of 21 statements, which asked the participants to rate on a Likert-type scale from 1 to 5 various possible barriers that prevent women’s career advancement. In addition, there was one question asking the participants to add any other factors that were not mentioned in the previous statements but were considered as a barrier for women’s advancement. The 21st question was an open-ended question on other organizational practices that were not mentioned in the 20 statements. Part V had nine questions asking women to rate the importance of various organizational practices that can help women’s career advancement and development. For rating the ï ¬ rst eight questions in this part, the Likert-type scale was used with the following scale: Not helpful, Slightly helpful, Quite helpful and Very helpful. One question asked the participants to add other organizational practices that could be useful to women’s career advancement and development. 2.3. Statistical analysis The statistical analysis was prepared with the use of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The statistical tabulations included descriptive statistics and crosstabs aimed at examining the statistical signiï ¬ cance of a comparison between women’s occupational level and (a) questions related to equal treatment (Part III) and also (b) questions related to organizational practices which would assist the participants in developing and advancing women’s careers (Part IV). 2.4. Sample The questionnaires were distributed randomly to 250 women working in various private, public and semi-public companies. The distribution and collection of the questionnaires was done either through the Human Resources/Personnel Departments. A total of 154 questionnaires were used for the study, giving a response rate of 62%. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Biographical data 3.1.1. Section A This research concentrated on 154 women respondents, ages 22– 57. From the sample 61.7% of the participants were married and 59.1% had children. Regarding the educational level of the participants 22.7% were high school graduates; 20.1% had a college diploma; 24.7% had a Bachelor’s degree; 30.5% had a Master’s M.P. Michailidis et al. Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 degree; and only 1.9% had a Doctoral degree. Of the sample, 47.4% stated that their position at work was in the ï ¬ rst line managerial level and 15.6% belonged to the middle management level; 5.2% held top management positions, while the rest 31.8% held positions below ï ¬ rst line management. The results showed that the majority of women are trapped between the ï ¬ rst and middle line managerial levels. Only 8 out of 154 women who participated in the research had top management positions, a number which is not very positive for the career advancement opportunities of women. 3.1.2. Section B 3.1.2.1. Part I. Here, the participants responded to questions related to work discrimination. In the question whether they experienced any form of discrimination in the workplace because they were female, 87.7% replied that they had not experienced any form of discrimination; 89.6% replied that they had not felt that they had missed a promotion or their promotion had been delayed because of their gender; 81.8% stated that male co-workers of similar duties did not receive higher salary than them; and 86.4% replied that they had not experienced differential treatment in the recruiting process because of their gender. Interestingly though, one of the comments made for this question was that at a job interview a participant was asked whether she was engaged to be married or was planning to get engaged soon. Her answer was negative and after she was hired she learned that women with children were rejected as they would not be as ‘committed’ as they should be. Furthermore, 80.5% stated that they had not experienced any differential treatment in career prospects; 90.3% replied that male and female employees of the same managerial level receive the same monetary rewards. Continuing on, 87.7% of the participants do not think that women receive less non-ï ¬ nancial rewards that their male colleagues. Lastly, 81.2% of the participants do not believe that at some point of their career they were not appointed for a job because of their gender. Some discrimination acts that women had experienced and were mentioned in the open-ended questions are ‘Women receive lower pay than men’. ‘Males are treated with more respect’. ‘Another man took my position because I was a woman’. ‘Negative attitudes by male colleagues toward women’. ‘I was not assigned on an important project because of my gender’. ‘I was told that having a baby would affect my job and I was not hired’. 3.1.2.2. Part II. Here, the participants responded to questions related to their gender as a limiting factor in workplace. As regards promotions, 69.5% responded that gender does limit (but at the not much level) promotions. Furthermore, regarding compensation, 67.5% replied that their gender does limit the compensation (but at the not much level). In addition, as far as access to clients is concerned, 71.4% believe that gender does limit access to clients (but at the not much level). Lastly, in examining access to training and development programs, once again the majority, 73.4% feels that gender is an element that limits access to training (but at the not much level). 3.1.2.3. Part III. In this part, the participants were asked to rate their degree of agreement on several statements. In the statement whether women in managerial positions are as Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 The International Journal of Human Resource Management capable as men at similar positions, the majority of the participants (97.4%, 150 women) think that women managers are as capable as male managers. Furthermore, when asked whether women and men are treated equally in their organization, 79.9% of the participants have not felt that they were treated differently at the workplace due to their gender. In addition, when asked whether at the company where they work, women and men are given equal opportunities for advancement to higher positions, 77.3% believed that women receive the same opportunities for advancement in the organization they work for. Furthermore, in the statement on whether women have to perform better than their male colleagues to be promoted to the same position, 42.2% feel that for a woman to be promoted she must work twice as hard as a man would. Lastly, when looking at childbearing, on the statement ‘once a woman has a child, she is considered to be less co mmitted to her career’, half of the respondents (50.7%) agree that there is a perception that working mothers are not committed to their careers as they should be. 3.1.2.4. Part IV. This part the participants had to rate on a Likert-type scale from 1 to 5 various possible barriers that prevent women’s career advancement. The questions measuring the extent to which ‘women’s low level of self-conï ¬ dence’ is a barrier to their career advancement, 69.5% of the participants agreed with the statement that the low level of self-conï ¬ dence women have is a barrier to their career advancement. When questioned about the extent of ‘working hours facilitate parenting’ and if they are considered a barrier to women’s career advancement, the replies received indicated that women would want to have ï ¬â€šexible working hours that will assist them with their childcare obligations, speciï ¬ cally, 68.2% think that working hours do not facilitate parenting. Moreover, when examining the extent of ‘absence of equal career development opportunities for women’, and whether it is considered a barrier to women’s career advancement, 55.2% consider the absence of equal career development opportunities for women as a barrier for their advancement in the workplace. In addition, the statement ‘to what extent insufï ¬ cient women role models in higher organizational levels, is a barrier to women’s career advancement’, 56.5% of the participants stated that having female role models in higher organizational levels would help them develop; therefore, the non-existence of those role models is a barrier for their career development. To the statement ‘to what extent, a non-supportive spouse, is a barrier to women’s career advancement’ appears that having a supporting spouse is a factor that can be very helpful for working women as 68.2% of the participants feel that not having assistance at ho me from their partner would be a barrier for their career. When asked about ‘company’s lack of commitment to gender advancement’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 57.8% of the respondents believe that the failure of an organization to be committed to gender advancement is a barrier for their career development. Further on, when asked about the extent to which ‘male domination in senior organizational positions’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 63.7% of the participants consider that senior organizational positions are dominated by male employees something that prevents women from advancing to higher positions. In addition, when asked about the extent ‘company’s lack of ability to implement and enforce anti-discriminatory and equality legislation’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 62.3% of the respondents feel that companies do not implement anti-discriminatory legislation and this is a barrier for their career advancement. Also, when aske d about the ‘tendency for organizations to assign male employees on high visibility projects’ and whether this is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 120 of the participants (a percentage of 78%) Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 M.P. Michailidis et al. believe that male employees are assigned on high visibility projects leaving female employees behind and such a practice sets barriers for women’s advancement. The statement looking at the extent to which ‘perceptions that women may eventually leave work once they have a family’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 61.7% agreed that the perception that women may eventually leave work once they have a family is a barrier for their career as this affects the way women are treated in the workplace and reduce the opportunities given to them. Continuing on, looking at the statement examining the extent to which ‘women’s conï ¬â€šicting roles between work and family’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement? It appears that the conï ¬â€šicting roles between work and family are considered by the majority of the participants (62.3%) as a barrier for their career advancement. When asked to rate the extent to which ‘women’s responsibilities for childcare’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 66.2% agreed that since women have the sole responsibility of childcare, this is a barrier for their career advancement. Also, when asked to rate the extent to which ‘career breaks for childbearing, child raising and other family obligations’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 66.9% believed that career breaks for childbearing and child raising are a barrier for women’s advancement. Furthermore, when measuring the extent to which ‘perceptions that men make better managers than women’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 63.7% of the participants stated agreed. In the question asking women to state whether they believe at the existence of the glass ceiling, 54.6% stated that they did experience these invisible banners which are a barrier for their advancement, 16.2% do not believ e at the existence of those barriers, whilst 29.2% were undecided. And when asked to state to what extent ‘stereotypes regarding women’s roles in society’ is a barrier to women’s career advancement, 53.9% believe that stereotypes about women is a barrier for them as often women are considered weak, sensitive and that they should not be working. Other barriers that prevent women’s advancement in the workplace and were not mentioned in the questions above were the following: ‘Women are judged by their appearance’. ‘Face and body is what they look at’. ‘Lack of acquaintances in comparison to male acquaintances’. 3.1.2.5. Part V. In this part, there were several questions asking women to rate how important various organizational practices were considered in helping women in their career advancement and development. One was on ‘mentorship programs’, 70.8% stated that it would be helpful for their advancement if they received mentoring. Further on, the question related to ‘managerial programs which identify and develop women’s potential’, 86.3% of the participants reported ï ¬ nding managerial programs that would identify and develop women’s potential as helpful. As far as ‘programs that would help women balance their work and family lives’, 93.5% believe that they would be helped by programs that provide assistance to women on how to balance work and family lives. These results show that women feel that they cannot balance work and family obligations and perhaps they need some assistance on how to achieve it. The question related to ‘on-site childcare facilities’, participants replied almost unanimously (93.5%) that it would be very helpful to them if their children could attend an on-site childcare facility. In addition, as far as ‘refresher courses when re-entering the workforce’, the majority of the participants (78.6%) agreed that it would be very helpful if women received refreshing courses when Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 The International Journal of Human Resource Management re-entering the workforce after a career break. The question ‘offering ï ¬â€šexible working hours’ is considered as an important factor for the advancement and development of women as 93.5% agreed that it would be helpful if they could arrange the hours they would be working according to the obligations they have at home. Continuing on as far as the question on ‘women role models in the highest levels of the organization’, 85.1% agreed that having women role models in the highest levels of the organization would be very helpful for the careers. Lastly, 100% of the respondents showed agreement on the statement, ‘helping women to broaden their professional experiences’. This unanimity indicates that women do not feel that they receive help from the companies they are working and consider it to be a huge barrier for their career development. The participants were asked to add any other organizational practices that were not mentioned but are consi dered important for working women. The comments made were the following: ‘Educating and always giving upgraded information to young women through organized seminars and events’. ‘Allowing work to be done at home, this will give work opportunities to women with families’. 3.1.2.6. Part VI. An analysis of the test of signiï ¬ cance – Crosstabs was also performed. This tried to examine the differences between the following: Current position at work: (1) just below ï ¬ rst line management, (2) ï ¬ rst line management, (3) middle management and (4) top management and: Part (A), ï ¬ ve questions, which referred to the degree of agreement on a ï ¬ ve-point Likert-type scale, as far as the: work capability of women compared with men; equal treatment of men and women in the workplace; equal opportunities for advancement; women’s performance and promotions; and family commitment once women have children and Part (B), eight questions, which referred to the degree of helpfulness of several organizational practices which contribute to their career advancement, looking at: mentorship programs; managerial programs that help women identify and develop their potential; programs that would help them balance work and family; the on-site childcare facilities; refreshers courses for the comeback; ï ¬â€šexible working hours; women role models in the highest levels of organizations; and programs helping women to broaden their professional experience. Concerning Part (A) there were signiï ¬ cant differences when examining Chi-square at the 0.01 level of signiï ¬ cance with the following three questions: The question, ‘I believe that women in managerial positions are as capable as men at similar positions’, indicated signiï ¬ cant differences between the categories below ï ¬ rst line management, ï ¬ rst line management, middle management and top management. Women belonging to below ï ¬ rst line management category, ï ¬ rst line management and middle management tend to agree or strongly agree with the statement (97.7%, 98.6% and 100%, respectively). On the other hand, the percentage of women holding top managerial positions and agreeing with the statement is 75%, while 12.5% is undecided and 12.5% tend to disagree. In general 2.5% of all categories are either undecided or they disagree, and 97.4% agreeing. On the question, which stated ‘Women and men are treated equally in the organization’, s howed signiï ¬ cant differences at the 0.10 levels among the categories below ï ¬ rst line Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 management, ï ¬ rst line management, middle management and top management. It appears that women in top management and below ï ¬ rst line management positions (75% and 44.9%) strongly agree with the statement. However, the percentage of women in middle management strongly agreeing is very low only 20.8%, but a higher percentage agreeing (45.8%) however, with a total of 33.3% disagreeing and strongly disagreeing, or undecided with the statement and 12.2% of the below ï ¬ rst line management are undecided. Overall 20.1% of all categories are either undecided or they disagree, and 79.9% agreeing. Next question requested the opinion of the respondents on the statement ‘At the company where I work women and men are given equal opportunities for advancement to higher positions’. Women holding top managerial positions believe that the company they are working for is giving both sexes equal opportunities for career advancement since 62.5% strongly agree and 37.5% tend to agree. This picture is not the same for the other managerial levels. Women in below ï ¬ rst line managerial level agreeing is 81.6% while the remaining 16.4% is undecided. The ï ¬ rst line managers have somehow similar percentages with 75.3% agreeing with the statement, and 13.7% were undecided. For the middle management respondents the results were the following: 56.7% agreed, 4.2% are undecided while 29.2% do not believe that there is equal treatment between men and women in the organization they are working. In Part B of the questionnaire, there were signiï ¬ cant differences when examining Chisquare at the 0.10 levels of signiï ¬ cance, the question concerning the programs which identify and develop women’s potential, here a total of 87.7% of below ï ¬ rst line management, 90.4% of ï ¬ rst line management, 70.8% of middle management and 87.5% of top management reported that such programs are useful. However, a very small percentage of 8.3% of below ï ¬ rst line management, 42.9% of ï ¬ rst line management, 38.5% of middle management 55.6% reported that programs which identify and develop women’s potential are quite helpful. Two open-ended questions allowed the participants to express themselves on other barriers that women face in their development and advancement in the workplace and also other organizational practices not addressed in the questionnaires. It is true that the majority of the sample did not answer those two questions; only 10% of the participants ï ¬ lled in those questions. Looking for other barriers that women face in their work life, the ï ¬ rst barrier mentioned by several participants was that women are stereotyped and are judged only by their looks, appearance and body. Other comments were that women do not belong in social networks, sports clubs like men do, and this affects their careers. In addition, when looking at other organizational practices that might be helpful for women’s career advancement, there were suggestions like work from home which needs to be encouraged, and courses that help young women increase their self-conï ¬ dence, assertiveness training and how to promote and protect their work rights. The last one is very important because many women do not have equal access to their rights because some of these rights are based on ‘male breadwinner model’ and do not consider the fact that females mostly carry the burden of having to bring together family and professional life. 4. Discussion During the past few years, there has been a global effort to eliminate gender discrimination; but we still have a long way to go and a lot of perceptions need to change along the way (Bartram 2005). Women around the globe are being discriminated against in the workplace, they are not rewarded on equal terms as men and do not receive the necessary aids for career advancement. Thus, the purpose of this study was to identify the factors that Downloaded by [La Trobe University] at 02:53 19 September 2013 The International Journal of Human Resource Management working women in Cyprus are faced with which lead them to experience discrimination; also to examine possible barriers that affect women’s advancement; and ï ¬ nally identify organizational practices that assist them in achieving work – life balance. The ï ¬ ndings conï ¬ rm that women enter a company in large numbers, as supporting staff, a minority of them reaches the middle-level management, while a very small number of female managers achieves an executive position (Wirth 2001). Only 8 out of 154 women who participated in the research had top management positions, a number which is not very positive for career advancement opportunities of women. A conclusion that could be drawn, with caution though, is that perhaps women in Cyprus do face a glass ceiling while climbing the corporate ladder, which does not allow them to advance to top management. These ï ¬ ndings agree with the EMPATHY-EDGE research, carried out in 2003– 2006 by the European Union, which reported that 104 out of 156 women had never directly experienced workplace discrimination, even though the majority of those women had experienced some kind of career advancement barrier. Nevertheless, gender discrimination is a global phenomenon and it was not expected to receive such a large percentage of women disagreeing with its existence in Cyprus. The results indicated that for the majority of the Cypriot women, marriage and children did not appear as a big obstacle for developing their careers. Similar to these ï ¬ ndings were the results of a research for female Greek entrepreneurs by Sarri and Trihopoulou (2005), reporting that the majority of the participants were married and had children. The writers continued by saying that women had achieved in ï ¬ nding a way to ‘develop abilities, skills and competencies’ that help them balance their careers and family obligations. However, in this study it has been demonstrated that women have some difï ¬ culty in balancing work and family obligations. In addition, lack of company programs that help women balance work and family obligations 93.5% of the respondents stated that organizational programs would greatly help women balance work and family obligations. Perhaps, the reason why women are gathered in lower organizational hierarchy levels is their low level of self-conï ¬ dence that prevents them from advancing. ‘Company’s lack of commitment to gender advancement’ and ‘lack of ability to implement and enforce antidiscriminatory and equality legislation’ received high agreement ratings. Companies should implement regulations that help the minorities receive the opportunities they deserve. If a company fails to do so then the minorities are not treated equally. Once again these factors have an effect on the reason why women are not represented equally at the executive positions of a company. The results were impressive as a large number of women would want to be assisted by organizational programs. In particular, ‘mentoring programs’, ‘managerial programs which identify and develop women’s potential’, ‘programs that would help women balance their work and family lives’, ‘on-site childcare facilities’, ‘refresher courses when re-entering the workforce’, ‘offering ï ¬â€šexible working hours’, ‘women role models in the highest levels of the organization’, ‘helping women to broaden their professional experiences’ received high ratings and are considered as important for them and their advancement. The lack of women role models, the lack of mentoring and the commitment women have toward their families were identiï ¬ ed by Catalyst and the Conference of Board Europe (Catalyst 2002) as important barriers for women’s career, globally. The eclipse of these barriers by offering programs assisting working women is an important step for the development and advancement of women in Cyprus. From the responses of the above study, it could be concluded that modern Cypriot women do wish to purse a career and have a family at the same time. Since most women M.P. Michailidis et al. still have primary responsibility for childcare and dependents, it is logical that they identify issues related to family and the home as issues, which affect their career development. Furthermore, gender attitudes have been changing throughout history, however, women all over the world are still being rejected during the hiring process, not promoted in higher positions, continue getting unequal pay and frequently faced with invisible barriers which block them from reaching top organizational positions. The roots of this inequality have been proven to be deep and appear to be very difï ¬ cult to prove and even harder to remedy. Achieving equal rights for equal positions is huge, enormous step efforts and a global concern. 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Biochemical investigations Essay Example

Biochemical investigations Essay Example Biochemical investigations Essay Biochemical investigations Essay Ameliorating consequence of ethanolic infusion ofBrassica oleraceaL. volt-ampere. italica against aflatoxin B1 induced hepatic harm in mice. Faculty of Science Abstraction Background Brassica oleraceaL. volt-ampere. italica besides known as Brassica oleracea italica is a cruciferous vegetable belongs to household that protects against malignant neoplastic disease. Its flowerets have been used in many states as salad. It contains phytochemicals that helps to make unsusceptibility and antioxidant support in the organic structure by bring oning excess protection of the organic structure s enzymes. The present probe purposes at measuring the hepatoprotective consequence ofBrassica oleraceaL. volt-ampere. italica ( Brassica oleracea italica ) infusion on aflatoxin B1 induced hepatic harm in mice. Methods Aflatoxins are powerful hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic agents. Reactive O species and attendant peroxidative harm caused by aflatoxin are considered to be the chief mechanism taking to hepatotoxicity. In present survey, aflatoxin ( 66.6 A µg/kg bw/day ) treated animate beings showed a important addition in lipid peroxidation degree with attendant lessening in enzymatic and non enzymatic antioxidants as compared to controls. Consequences Broccoli, a cruciferous veggie which contains a assortment of polyphenolic antioxidants, showed hepatoprotective consequence at a dose regimen of 0.2 g/kg organic structure weight per twenty-four hours by take downing lipid peroxidation and heightening the degree of decreased glutathione ( GSH ) and protein contents in comparing to aflatoxin treated group. The hepatoprotective consequence was besides shown by the important addition in the activities of enzymatic antioxidants such as glutathione-S-transferase ( GST ) , glutathione peroxidase ( GPx ) , glutathione reductase ( GR ) , superoxide dismutase ( SOD ) and catalase ( CAT ) when compared to controls. Histopathological analysis of liver samples further confirmed the protective consequence of the infusion. Decisions All these findings demonstrated that, ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica has strong antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects and accordingly may relieve liver harm caused by aflatoxin B1 induced hepatotoxicity in mice. Background Fruits and veggies are good beginnings of natural antioxidants for the human diet, incorporating many different antioxidant constituents include carotenoids, vitamins, flavonoids, other phenolic compounds, dietetic glutathione and endogenous metabolites, which provide protection against harmful free groups [ 1,2 ] . These antioxidants besides have been strongly associated with decreased hazard of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, malignant neoplastic disease, diabetes, Alzheimer s disease, cataracts and age-related functional diminution in add-on to other wellness benefits [ 3 ] . Cruciferous veggies, belong to household Cruciferae in specific of theBrassicagenus such as Brassica oleracea italica, Brassica oleracea botrytis, boodle and Bruxelless sprouts, have important malignant neoplastic disease preventative effects, as shown in epidemiological and carnal carcinogenesis surveies [ 4 ] . They contain significant measures of isothiocyanates ( largely in the signifier of their glucosinolate precursors ) some of which ( e.g. , sulforaphane or 4-methylsulfinylbutyl isothiocyanate ) are really powerful inducers of stage 2 enzymes [ 5 ] .Brassica oleraceaL. volt-ampere. italica ( Brassica oleracea italica ) is a good beginning of wellness advancing compounds since it besides contains a assortment of polyphenolics [ 6 ] . The malignant neoplastic disease protective belongingss of Brassica oleracea italica ingestion are most likely mediated through bioactive compounds that induce a assortment of physiologic maps including moving as direct or indirect antioxidants, m odulating enzymes and commanding programmed cell death and the cell rhythm [ 7 ] . Broccoli besides contains other protective components like beta-carotene, vitamin C and vitamin E, which can assist to cut down reactive O species, degree and prevent malignant neoplastic diseases [ 8 ] . Broccoli showed its antioxidant and cytoprotective efficaciousness against many diseases such as alzheimer s disease [ 9 ] , Parkinson s disease [ 10 ] , chest malignant neoplastic disease [ 11 ] , vesica malignant neoplastic disease [ 12 ] , prostate malignant neoplastic disease [ 13 ] , lung malignant neoplastic disease [ 14 ] , nephritic malignant neoplastic disease [ 15 ] , hepatic malignant neoplastic disease [ 16 ] , skin malignant neoplastic disease [ 17 ] , encephalon hurt [ 18 ] and cholestrol [ 19 ] . Ascorbic acid ( vitamin C ) is an negatron giver, and this belongings histories for all its known maps. As an negatron giver, vitamin C is a powerful water-soluble antioxidant in worlds. Antioxidant effects of vitamin C have been demonstrated in earlier surveies[ 20 ] . Vitamin C plays an of import physiological function in cells as a reduction agent and antioxidant, free extremist scavenger and enzyme cofactor. Glutathione and vitamin C show a strong functional mutualityin vivo. Vitamin C protects endothelial cells from oxidative emphasis by neutralizing the effects of oxidative species and diminishing blood cell-endothelial cell interactions, while glutathione modulates the oxidation-reduction belongingss of vitamin C in endothelial cells. Clinical surveies have revealed that vitamin C can change by reversal endothelial disfunction under different pathological conditions such as hypercholesteremia, high blood pressure, smoke, diabetes and coronary artery disease [ 21 ] .Aflatoxin B 1 ( AFB1 ) is a powerful hepatocarcinogen, which may play a major function in the etiology of human hepatic and extrahepatic carcinogenesis [ 22, 23 ] . An increased incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma has been associated with dietetic exposure to AFB1, peculiarly in population that is normally exposed to hepatitis B virus [ 24, 25 ] . The toxicity and carcinogenicity of AFB1 is thought to be straight linked to its bioactivation, ensuing in a extremely reactive AFB1 8, 9-epoxide ( AFBO ) . This bioactivation of AFB1 occurs chiefly by a microsomal cytochrome P450 ( CYP450 ) dependent epoxidation of the terminal furan ring of AFB1 and is responsible for adhering to cellular supermolecules such as DNA, RNA and other protein components [ 26 ] . Recent findings have demonstrated that oxidative harm is one of the underlining mechanisms for the aflatoxin B1 ( AFB1 ) -induced cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity [ 24 ] . An addition in the formation of reactive O species ( ROS ) was detected by Shenet Al. [ 26, 27 ] utilizing a fluorescent investigation, 2V,7V-dichlorofluorescin diacetate, in civilized rat hepatocytes following AFB1 exposure. These reactive O species ( ROS ) may assail soluble cell compounds every bit good as membranes, finally taking to the damage of cell operation and cytolysis [ 28 ] . Peroxidative amendss induced in the cell are encountered by luxuriant defence mechanisms, including enzymic and non enzymic antioxidants [ 29 ] . It has been implicated that oxidative emphasis following aflatoxin metamorphosis, together with hepatotoxicity or hepatocarcinogenesis was inhibited by the usage of food-associated antioxidants and/or free extremist scavengers [ 30, 31, 32, 33, 24 ] . The overall purpose of this survey was to measure the ameliorating consequence ofBrassica oleraceaL. volt-ampere. italica infusion in Restoration of enzymatic and non enzymatic antioxidants and decrease of lipid peroxidation in aflatoxin induced liver harm in mice. Methods Materials Aflatoxin B1 ( AFB1 ) C17H12O6 EC No. 214-603-3, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene ( CDNB ) , dithio-bis-2-nitrobenzoic acid ( DTNB ) , glutathione reductase ( GR ) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphates ( NADPH ) , oxidized glutathione and decreased glutathione were obtained from Sigma Aldrich Co. , St. Louis, MO, USA ) . Ascorbic acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid ( EDTA ) , thiobarbituric acid ( TBA ) and trichlororoacetic ( TCA ) acid were obtained from Merck. Nitroblue tetrazolium salt ( NBT ) was purchased from Himedia Labs, Mumbai, India, while other chemicals were obtained from S. D. Fine Chemicals. Animals The survey was conducted in maleSwiss albinomice ( 30 A ± 2 g ) provided by Central Animal House Facility of Jamia Hamdard. A anterior blessing was obtained from the Animal Ethics Committee of Hamdard University ( JHAEC ) for the survey protocol. The animate beings were maintained under the standard conditions of humidness, temperature ( 25 A ± 2oC ) and light ( 12 H light/12 H dark ) , and fed with commercial pellet diet and H2Oad libitum. Plant infusion ( PE ) Plant stuff,Brassica oleraceaL. volt-ampere.italica, ( Brassica oleracea italica ) was purchased from the local market, New Delhi, India and authenticated by the taxonomer, Department of Botany, Hamdard University. Ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica ( EEB ) was prepared by soxhlet method utilizing 500 ml ethyl alcohol ( 95 % ) for 100 g ( dry weight ) of works stuff. Extract was concentrated in H2O bath to semisolid signifier [ 34 ] . The output of infusion was 19.80 % . Chemical profile of Brassica oleracea italica infusion has been described by assorted research workers and chief identified components are glucocynolates, vitamin Es, carotenoids, polyphenolics, etc.A [ 35, 6 ] . Animal theoretical account and in vivo intervention regimen Animals were divided into six groups. Each group consisted of 15 mice. Control mice ( Group I ) were administered normal saline ( 0.9 % NaCl ) orally for 90 yearss. Group II mice were administered aflatoxin B1 ( 66.6 A µg/kg/ bw/0.2ml/day, [ 36 ] which was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide ( DMSO ) and diluted farther with normal saline to the needed concentration. The concluding forced feeding solution of AFB1 contained 1 % DMSO. Group III mice were administered orally with a dosage of 0.2g/kg bw/0.2ml/day ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica ( EEB ) [ 37 ] . Ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica and ascorbic acid were dissolved in normal saline. Group IV ( AFB1+ EEB ) micewere administered with ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica after 30 proceedingss of aflatoxin disposal. Group V mice were administered with ascorbic acid dose ( Asc, 0.1g/kg bw/0.2ml/day, [ 38 ] . Group VI ( AFB1 + Asc ) mice were administered orally after 30 proceedingss of aflato xin disposal. The dosage of ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica and ascorbic acid were selected on the footing of above cited literature. The interventions were given during the full period of survey i.e. three months. Biochemical probes During the survey five animate beings from each group were sacrificed by cervical disruption on 30th ­ , 60th, and 90th twenty-four hours. Liver tissues from the sacrificed mice were rapidly removed and cleaned to do them free of immaterial stuff and perfused with ice-cold saline. The tissues were homogenized in chilled phosphate buffer ( 0.1 M, pH 7.4 ) utilizing a Potter Elvehjem homogenizer. The homogenate was filtered through muslin fabric and centrifuged at 800g for 5 min at 4oC to divide the atomic dust. The supernatant was centrifuged at 10,500g for 30 min at 4oC to obtain the station mitochondrial supernatant ( PMS, [ 39 ] ) for the biochemical measurings as described below. Lipid Peroxidation ( LPO ) LPO was measured by the method of Utleyet Al. ( 1967 ) [ 40 ] . The assay mixture consisted of 0.67 % thiobarbituric acid ( TBA ) , 10 % chilled trichloro acetic acid and homogenate ( 10 % ) in a entire volume of 3 milliliter. The rate of LPO was expressed as nmoles of Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance ( TBARS ) formed/h/g tissue, utilizing a molar extinction coefficient of 1.56A-105 M-1cm-1. Reduced glutathione ( GSH ) GSH content was measured by the method of Jollowet Al. ( 1974 ) [ 41 ] . PMS ( 1.0 milliliter ) was precipitated with 1.0 milliliters of sulfosalicylic acid ( 4.0 % ) . The samples were kept at 4oC for 1 H and so subjected to centrifugation at 1200g for 15 proceedingss at 4oC. The assay mixture contained 0.5 milliliter of filtered aliquot, 2.3 milliliter of Na phosphate buffer ( 0.1 M, pH 7.4 ) and 0.2 milliliter DTNB in a entire volume of 3.0 milliliter. The optical density of reaction merchandise was measured instantly at 412 nanometer and consequence expressed as nmoles GSH/g tissue. Protein contents Protein contents in assorted samples were estimated by the method of Lowryet Al. ( 1951 ) [ 42 ] . 0.1 milliliter of PMS was diluted with 0.9 milliliters of DDW and precipitated with equal sum of 10 % TCA and subjected to centrifugation at 1,200g for 5 proceedingss at 4oC.A Precipitate was saved and dissolved in 0.5 milliliter of 1 N NaOH. The reaction mixture contained 0.1 milliliter aliquot of sample, 0.9 milliliter of DDW, 2.5 milliliter alkaline Cu reagent and 0.25 milliliter of Follin s reagent in a entire volume of 3.75 milliliter. Then optical density was taken after 20 proceedingss at 680 nanometers and protein content was calculated in footings of milligram protein/g tissue. Antioxidant enzyme measurings Glutathione-S-transferase ( GST ) activity was assayed by the method of Habiget Al. ( 1974 ) [ 43 ] . The reaction mixture consisted of 1.675 milliliters sodium phosphate buffer ( 0.1 M, pH 7.4 ) , 0.2 milliliter reduced glutathione ( 1 millimeter ) , 0.025 milliliter of 1 CDNB ( 1 millimeter ) and 0.1 milliliter PMS ( 10 % ) in a entire volume of 2 milliliter. The alteration in optical density was recorded at 340 nanometers and the enzyme activity calculated as nmoles CDNB conjugates formed/min/mg protein, utilizing a molar extinction coefficient of 9.6A-103 M-1cm-1. Glutathione peroxidase ( GPx ) activity was assayed by the method of Mohandaset Al. ( 1984 ) [ 39 ] . The assay mixture consisted of 1.44 milliliters sodium phosphate buffer ( 0.1 M, pH 7.4 ) , 0.1 milliliter EDTA ( 1 millimeter ) , 0.1ml Na azide ( 1 millimeter ) , 0.05 milliliter of glutathione reductase ( 1 IU/ml ) , 0.1 milliliter GSH ( 1 millimeter ) , 0.1 milliliter NADPH ( 0. 2 millimeter ) , 0.01 milliliter H2O2 ( 0.25 millimeter ) , and 0.1ml PMS ( 10 % ) in a entire volume of 2 milliliter. Oxidation of NADPH was recorded at 340 nanometer. The enzyme activity was calculated as nmoles NADPH oxidized/min/mg protein, utilizing a molar extinction coefficient of 6.22A-103 M-1 cm-1. Glutathione reductase ( GR ) activity was assayed by the method of Mohandaset Al. ( 1984 ) [ 39 ] . The assay mixture consisted of 1.68 milliliters sodium phosphate buffer ( 0.1 M, pH 7.4 ) , 0.1ml EDTA ( 0.5 millimeter ) , 0.1ml NADPH ( 0.1 millimeter ) , 0.05 milliliter oxidized glutathione ( 1 millimeter ) , and 0.1 milliliter PMS ( 10 % ) in a entire volume of 2 milliliter. Oxidation of NADPH was recorded at 340 nanometer. The enzyme activity was calculated as nmoles NADPH/min/mg protein, utilizing a molar extinction coefficient of 6.22A-103 M-1 cm-1. Superoxide dismutase ( SOD ) activity was assayed by the method of Dhindsaet Al. ( 1981 ) [ 40 ] . The reaction mixture dwelling of 1.5 milliliters phosphate buffer ( 0.1 M, pH 7.4 ) , 0.1 milliliter NBT ( 2.25 millimeter ) , 0.1 milliliter PMS ( 10 % ) , 0.1 milliliter Na carbonate ( 1.5 M ) , 0.2 milliliter methionine ( 200 millimeter ) , 0.1 milliliter EDTA ( 3mM, ) , 1 milliliter DDW and 0.1 milliliter riboflavinA ( 60 A µM ) in the entire volume of 3 milliliter was incubated in visible radiation for 60 proceedingss at room temperature. The rate of reaction was measured by entering alteration in optical density at 560 nanometers due to formation of Formosan, a reaction merchandise of NBT. The enzyme activity was calculated as units/mg protein/h Catalase ( CAT ) activity was assayed by the method of Claiborne ( 1985 ) [ 41 ] . The reaction mixture was consisted of 1.95ml phosphate buffer ( 0.1 M, pH 7.4 ) , 1 milliliter H2O2 ( 0.09 M ) and 0.05 milliliters 10 % PMS in the concluding volume of 3 milliliter. Change in optical density was recorded at 240 nanometer. Catalase activity was calculated in footings of A µmoles H2O2 consumed /min/mg protein. Histopathological analysis Histopathological analysis of liver tissue was carried out by the method of Luna, 1968 in Maulana Azad Medical College ( MAMC ) , New Delhi, India to measure the hepatoprotective consequence [ 42 ] . The tissues were fixed in impersonal buffered formol ( 10 % methanal in phosphate buffered saline ) , a fixative that stabilized the tissues to forestall decay. The samples were so immersed in multiple baths of increasingly more concentrated ethyl alcohol to desiccate the tissue, followed by a glade agent such as xylol or Histoclear, and eventually hot molten paraffin wax ( impregnation ) . During this 12 to 16 hr procedure, paraffin wax replaced the H2O and soft, damp tissues were turned into a difficult paraffin block, which was so placed in a mold incorporating more liquefied wax ( embedded ) and allowed to chill and indurate. The tissue was so sectioned into really thin ( 2 8 micron ) subdivisions utilizing a microtome. These pieces, thinner than the mean cell, was so placed on a gl ass slide for staining. To see the tissue under a microscope, the subdivisions were stained with one or more pigments. This was done to give contrast to the tissue being examined. Hematoxylin and eosin ( abbreviated H and E ) discolorations and used in histopathology. Hematoxylin colours nuclei blue, eosin colours the cytol. After staining the tissue were examined under negatron microscope. Statistical analysis All values were expressed as average A ± SE. Statistical analysis was performed byA one manner analysis of discrepancy ( ANOVA ) to see the differences in consequences of assorted groups. A value of P lt ; 0.01 and p lt ; 0.05 were considered important. Dunnett trial was besides applied for analysing the significance between different groups. Consequences Consequence of EEB on Lipid peroxidation Aflatoxin intervention resulted in a important ( p lt ; 0.01 ) addition in lipid peroxidation by 43 % , 61 % and 86 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours inA group II mice every bit compared to command group ( group I ) .A Group IV ( AFB1 +EEB ) showed important ( p lt ; 0.01 ) lessening in LPO degree by 13 % , 25 % and 40 % severally at 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours as compared to the aflatoxin treated group ( Figure 1 ) . Group VI ( AFB1 + Asc ) besides showed important ( p lt ; 0.01 ) lessening in LPO degree by 9 % , 26 % and 43 % as compared to the aflatoxin treated group ( group II ) severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours. Consequence of EEB on Reduced glutathione Figure 2 shows cellular GSH information of mice liver. A important ( p lt ; 0.01 ) lessening by 35 % , 56 % and 64 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours were observed in group II mice every bit compared to command group. Besides, there was a important ( p lt ; 0.01 ) addition by 14 % , 80 % and 180 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours in Group IV ( which was treated by EEB after 30 proceedingss of aflatoxin disposal ) as compared to group II which received aflatoxin entirely. Similar consequences were obtained in group VI ( AFB1 + Asc ) with a important increased by 50 % , 143 % and 217 % in comparing to the group II. Protein contents Protein contents decreased in group II by 28 % , 41 % and 60 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours during aflatoxin intervention as compared to the group I. Groups, which received ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica and ascorbic acid entirely showed protein contents comparable to group I. While, groups which received ethanolic infusions of Brassica oleracea italica and ascorbic acid in several groups alongwith aflatoxin intervention showed significantA ( p lt ; 0.01 ) addition in protein contents by 9 % , 37 % , 114 % and 23 % , 60 % and 149 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours in several groups as compared to the group II ( Table 1 ) . Consequence of EEB on Antioxidants enzymes GST activity significantly ( p lt ; 0.01 ) decreased in aflatoxin treated mice liver by 40 % , 49 % and 69 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours during aflatoxin intervention as compared to command groups. While groups ( III and V ) which received Brassica oleracea italicas extract and ascorbic acid entirely showed consequences comparable to command group ( group I ) . Whereas other groups ( IV and VI ) which received ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica and ascorbic acid alongwith aflatoxin showed significantly ( p lt ; 0.01 and p lt ; 0.05 ) increased GST activity by 16 % , 53 % , 199 % and 29 % , 74 % and 239 % in several groups on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours ( Table 1 ) , in comparing to aflatoxin treated group. GPx activity significantly ( p lt ; 0.01 ) decreased in aflatoxin treated mice liver by 20 % , 48 % and 66 % on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours during aflatoxin intervention as compared to command groups. Groups ( III and V ) which received Brassica oleracea italicas extract and compounds entirely showed normal GPx activity comparable to command groups. Whereas group which received ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica ( EEB ) alongwith aflatoxin showed increased GPx activity by 19 % , 87 % and 192 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours. Group VI, which received ascorbic acid alongwith aflatoxin, showed increased in GPx activity by 27 % , 82 % and 215 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours ( Table 1 ) . Glutathione reductase ( GR ) activity significantly ( p lt ; 0.01 ) decreased in aflatoxin treated group of mice by 41 % , 52 % and 73 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours during intervention. Groups ( III and V ) , which received Brassica oleracea italicas extract and compounds entirely, showed normal GR activity comparable to command groups. Group IV showed addition in GR activity by 23 % , 60 % and 228 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours. Group VI which received ascorbic acid alongwith aflatoxin besides showed significantly ( p lt ; 0.01 ) increased GR activity ( Table 1 ) . Aflatoxin treated mice liver showed lessening in superoxide dismutase activity by 39 % , 58 % and 77 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours as compared to command group ( group I ) . Groups, which received ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica and ascorbic acid entirely showed SOD activity comparable to aflatoxin treated group. Group, which received ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica alongwith aflatoxin, showed significantly ( p lt ; 0.01 ) enhanced SOD activity by 10 % , 88 % and 268 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours. Group VI which received standard compound ascorbic acid alongwith aflatoxin showed addition in SOD activity by 28 % , 95 % and 286 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours as compared to group II ( Table 1 ) .A Aflatoxin treated mice group which received aflatoxin entirely showed important lessening in catalase activity by 25 % , 46 % and 62 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours as compared to command group ( group I ) . Groups, which received Brassica oleracea italicas extract and ascorbic acid entirely, showed catalase activity comparable to command group in several groups. Group, which received ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica alongwith aflatoxin, showed important sweetening in catalase activity by 11 % , 70 % and 173 % . Treatment of ascorbic acid alongwith aflatoxin besides showed important ( p lt ; 0.01 and p lt ; 0.05 ) sweetening in catalase activity by 8 % , 66 % and 129 % severally on 30th, 60th and 90th twenty-four hours as compared to group II ( Table 1 ) .A Consequence of EEB on Histopathological analysis Histopathological analysis of liver subdivision of aflatoxin treated mice after 90th twenty-four hours showed marked vacuolar devolution of hepatocytes ( Figure 3b ) while mice treated with aflatoxin and Brassica oleracea italica infusion at the same time showed kupffer cells hyperplasia and regeneration activities in cells ( Figure 3c ) as compared to command group, which was normal ( Figure 3a ) . Discussion A figure of groundss suggest that oxidative harm caused by aflatoxin B1 ( AFB1 ) might be one of the mechanism behind aflatoxin B1 induced cell hurt and DNA harm, finally taking to carcinogenesis [ 43, 27 ] . AFB1 induced free extremist production or ROS production has been referred to as a possible ground for hepatotoxicity [ 44 ] . When ROS production overcomes the legion antioxidant barriers of defence it amendss a scope of cellular constructions and maps is produced. This procedure, known as oxidative emphasis, leads to pathologies such as coronary artery disease and malignant neoplastic disease, and finally to cell decease [ 45 ] . Lipid peroxidation ( LPO ) is one of the chief manifestation of oxidative harm initiated by ROS and it has been linked with altered membrane construction and enzyme inactivation. It is initiated by abstraction of H atom from the side concatenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the membrane [ 46 ] . Present information reveals that AFB1 disposal pr oduced pronounced oxidative impact as evidenced from important ( P lt ; 0.01 ) addition in LPO. The addition in LPO might consequences from increased production of free groups and lessening in antioxidant position. The oxidative emphasis observed in our survey is in conformity with the other studies where it has been implicated in AFB1 induced hepatotoxicity [ 47, 48, 49 ] .A In this survey intervention of animate beings with ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica ( EEB ) after 30 proceedingss of AFB1 disposal significantly reduced the AFB1 induced LPO ( Figure 1 ) by their ability to scavenge the free groups due to the presence of vitamin C, caretenoides and polyphenols etc in the Brassica oleracea italica infusion [ 50 ] . An of import function in the protection of tissues from the hurtful consequence of activated AFB1 is besides played by GSH and GST [ 51 ] . The enzymatic antioxidant defence systems are the natural defenders against lipid peroxidation. SOD, CAT and GPx enzymes are of import scavengers of superoxide ion and H peroxide. These enzymes prevent coevals of hydroxyl extremist and protect the cellular components from oxidative harm [ 52 ] . GPx is a cytoplasmatic and mitochondrial enzyme that detoxifies H2O2 in most cells. Glutathione-S-transferase ( GST ) is a household of the enzymes that catalyze the add-on of the tripeptide glutathione to endogenous and xenobiotic substrates, which have electrophilic functional groups. They play an of import function in detoxification and metamorphosis of many xenobiotic and endobiotic compounds. Superoxide dismutase is a really of import enzyme that maps as a cellular antioxidant. It is present in cell cytol and in chondriosome in order to keep a low concentration of superoxide anions. The important decrease in the activities of antioxidant enzymes ( GPx, GST, GR, SOD and CAT ) and non- enz ymatic antioxidant system ( GSH ) in aflatoxin treated mice liver ( group II ) as compared to the control group ( group I ) could be responsible for increased lipid peroxidation degrees observed during aflatoxin induced oxidative emphasis. Similar consequences have besides been reported antecedently for liver of mice [ 33 ] . GSH is a tripeptide containing cysteine that has a reactive -SH group with reductive authority. It can move as non enzymic antioxidant by direct interaction of -SH group with ROS or it can be involved in the enzymatic detoxification of ROS as a coenzyme [ 53 ] . GST catalyzes the junction of AFB1-8,9-epoxide with GSH to organize AFB1 -epoxide- GSH conjugates thereby diminishing the intracellular glutathione content [ 54 ] . This observation supports our findings where we observed a important diminution in degree of GSH ( Figure 2 ) and GST ( Table 1 ) in AFB1 induced animate beings. The Restoration of intracellular GSH contents and GST activity to normal degrees by Brassica oleracea italica infusion and ascorbic acid indicates that they play a critical function in extenuating AFB1 induced oxidative emphasis and subsequent harm to liver. Protein contents besides significantly decreased in aflatoxin treated mice liver. While groups which received ethanolic infusion of Brassica oleracea italica or ascorbic acid alongwith aflatoxin showed important addition in protein contents, this consequence is supported by old findings which demonstrated that aflatoxin lowers the protein contents [ 55 ] . It is already reported that Brassica oleracea italica is a good beginning of wellness advancing compounds since it contains many antioxidants such as vitamins, vitamin Es, caretenoids, polyphenolics and more specifically the compound glucoraphanin, which can metabolize to an anticancer substance sulforaphane [ 6 ] . In present survey the Restoration of GSH degree by broccoli infusion may be due to the polyphenolic antioxidants particularly flavonoids. Our findings is supported by the old surveies related to the protective consequence of antioxidants such as carotenoid, oltipraz, ebelsen against the cytotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and genotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 [ 56 ] . Antioxidants enzymes like GPx, GR, SOD and CAT form the first line of defence Against ROS and a lessening in their activities was observed with aflatoxin B1 disposal [ 49 ] . The above findings corroborates with our consequences where we observed a diminution in GPx, GR, SOD and CAT activities.A Selenium dependant GPx removes both H2O2 and lipid peroxides by catalysing the transition of lipid hydroperoxide to hydroxyl acids in the presence of GSH. The activity of GPx which is a component of GSH redox rhythm decreased during AFB1 disposal. This lessening in GPx activity may be due to the lessening in the handiness of substrate ( GSH ) and besides because of their change in their protein construction by ROS [ 29 ] . The increased intracellular GSH content following broccoli infusion and ascorbic acid intervention in several groups after aflatoxin disposal may trip GPx by forestalling the accretion of H2O2. The lessening in the degree of glutathione metabolising enzyme GR activity in AFB1 administered rats occurs as a consequence of reduced supply of reduced nico tinamide A dinucleotide phosphate ( NADPH ) for the transition of GSSG to GSH in the presence of GR. Under oxidative assault, NADP+ /NADPH ratio will exchange in favor of NADP+ , bespeaking lessening in the activity of enzymes [ 49 ] . Treatment with infusion of Brassica oleracea italica ( EEB ) and ascorbic acid ( Asc ) significantly increased the activity of GR ( Table 1 ) . This determination is besides supported by the work ofA Eberhardtet Al. ( 2005 ) [ 57 ] who reported the antioxidant capacity of Brassica oleracea italica on cellular oxidative emphasis. SOD is a household of metalloenzymes that is known to speed up the dismutation of endogenous cytotoxic superoxide groups to H2O2 which are hurtful to polyunsaturated fatty acids and structural protein of plasma membrane [ 58 ] . The H peroxide produced by SOD is farther removed by CAT. Decline in the activities of these enzymes after AFB1 disposal might be due to the inactivation of these enzymes ROS. Broccoli infusion increases the GSH position ensuing in the addition in SOD activity thereby forestalling the hurtful effects of superoxide groups. Therefore broccoli infusion indirectly influences the activities of SOD and CAT ( Table 1 ) . Histopathological analysis of liver samples shows vacuolar devolution of hepatocytes in aflatoxin treated liver of mice ( Figure 3b ) , while mice treated with aflatoxin and Brassica oleracea italica infusion at the same time showed kupffer

The Pros and Cons of Year-Round School

The Pros and Cons of Year-Round School Year-round school in the United States is neither a new concept nor an unusual one. Traditional school calendars and year-round schedules both provide students with about 180 days in the classroom. But instead of taking off much of the summertime, year-round school programs take a series of shorter breaks throughout the year. Advocates say the shorter breaks make it easier for students to retain knowledge and are less disruptive to the learning process. Detractors say the evidence to support this assertion is unconvincing. Traditional School Calendars Most public schools in America operate on the 10-month system, which gives students 180 days in the classroom. The school year typically begins a few weeks before or after Labor Day and concludes around Memorial Day, with time off during Christmas and New Years and again around Easter. This school schedule has been the default since the earliest days of the nation when the U.S. was still an agrarian society, and children were needed to work in the fields during the summer. Year-Round Schools Educators began experimenting with a more balanced school calendar in the early 1900s, but the idea of a year-round model didnt really catch on until the 1970s. Some advocates said it would help students retain knowledge. Others said it could help schools reduce overcrowding by staggering start times throughout the year.   The most common application of year-round education uses the 45-15 plan. Students attend school for 45 days, or about nine weeks, then take off for three weeks, or 15 school days. The normal breaks for holidays and spring remain in place with this calendar. Other ways to organize the calendar include the 60-20 and 90-30 plans. Single-track year-round education involves an entire school using the same calendar and getting the same holidays off. Multiple-track year-round education puts groups of students in school at different times with different vacations. Multitracking usually occurs when school districts want to save money. PeopleImages / Getty Images Arguments in Favor As of 2017, nearly 4,000 public schools in the U.S. follow a year-round schedule- around 10 percent of the nations students. Some of the most common reasons in favor of year-round schooling are as follows: Students tend to forget a lot during the summer, and shorter vacations might increase retention rates.School buildings unused in the summer are wasted resources.Short breaks provide time for students to receive enrichment education.Remediation can occur when it is most needed during the school year.Students get bored during the long break of summer.It gives families more options for scheduling vacations, rather than restricting travel to summertime.Other countries around the world use this system.Schools on year-round schedules can accommodate more students through multitracking. Rushay Booysen / EyeEm / Getty Images Arguments Against Opponents say year-round schooling hasnt proven to be as effective as its advocates claim. Some parents also complain that such schedules make it more difficult to plan family vacations or child care. Some of the most common arguments against year-round schools include: Studies have not conclusively proven the academic benefits.Students forget information just as easily with a three-week break as 10. Therefore, teachers on a year-round system end up with four periods of review instead of just one at a new school year.Summer programs such as youth camps suffer.Student summer employment becomes virtually impossible.Many older school buildings do not have air conditioning, making a year-round schedule impractical.Band and other extracurricular programs can run into problems scheduling practices and competitions, which often take place during the summer months.With multitracking, parents could have students at the same school on different schedules. School administrators considering year-round education should identify their goals and investigate whether a new calendar can help achieve them. When implementing any significant change, involving all stakeholders in the decision and the process improves the outcome. If students, teachers, and parents dont support a  new schedule, a transition could be difficult. Sources National Education Association staff. Research Spotlight on Year-Round Education. NEA.org, 2017. Niche.com staff. Schools Without Summer Break: An In-Depth Look at Year-Round Schooling. Niche.com, 12 April 2017. Weller, Chris. Year-Round School is Booming but Its Benefits Are Overhyped. BusinessInsider.com, 5 June 2017. Zubrzycki, Jacklyn. Year-Round Schooling Explained. Edweek.org, 18 December 2015.

Organic and analytical chemistry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organic and analytical chemistry - Essay Example IR provides information about the functional groups that are present in the molecules. NMR provides information about the structural relationship of the nuclei in a molecule. Mass Spectrometry: A mass spectrometer measures the deflection of charged particles as they travel across a magnetic field. This depends on their mass and velocity. A small amount of a sample material injected into the device becomes fragmented into various electrically-charged bits of molecules. These ions are then accelerated into the magnetic field section where they travel along a curved trajectory determined by their mass-to-charge ratio, m/e. Adjusting their velocity as they enter this section allows particles of each different mass to strike a detector. The rate at which different particles are detected provides the relative number of pieces of different mass in the molecule. The most important fragment is the M+ fragment, corresponding to the whole molecule. This gives a direct measurement of the molecular weight of the compound. Other fragments can be assigned to certain structural units. But MS cannot provide information about the relative positions of those parts in the m olecule. Infra-red Spectroscopy: IR spectroscopy measures the frequency of infra-red light that is absorbed as it passes through a thin film sample of a compound. The different bonds in a molecule undergo various vibrations and rotations. The frequencies of those motions depends on the masses of the atoms involved and the particular type of motion, and correspond to frequencies in the IR spectrum of light. As IR light is passed through the sample, each bond absorbs energy at its characteristic frequency. The IR spectrograph records the amount of light absorbed at each frequency across the IR spectrum. Some absorbances are characteristic of specific functional groups and appear in very certain ranges of wavelengths. The overall pattern of an